Many of the writers in the Tanzimat period wrote in several different genres simultaneously: for instance, the poet Namk Kemal also wrote the important 1876 novel ntibh (Awakening), while the journalist brahim inasi is noted for writing, in 1860, the first modern Turkish play, the one-act comedy "air Evlenmesi" (The Poet's Marriage). Aside from Iran, Farsi is spoken in Afghanistan, Tajikistan and the Pamirs Mountains. By the latter part of the tenth century, Samanid rulers gave the command of their army to Turkic generals. Austin: University of Texas, 159, Titley, Norah M. 1983. Miniature developed into a marriage of artistic and poetic languages and obtained a deep and sincere accordance with poetry. Various visitors and envoys were sent to European cities, especially to Paris, to experience the contemporary European customs and life. Turkic ascendance to power in the Samanid court brought Turks as the main patrons of Persianate culture, and as they subjugated Western and Southern Asia, they brought along this culture. In a very different tradition, but evincing a similar strong political viewpoint, was the satirical short-story writer Aziz Nesin. As they gained strength they fostered development of a new Turkish literature alongside the Persian and Arabic literatures that had arisen earlier. The state accepts all citizens as Turks. Pair their luxurious aesthetic with the impressive history of the rug-making tradition, and these sumptuous textiles become even more tantalizing as they reflect an aspect of Middle Eastern culture that dates back millennia. Turkic political ascendancy in the Samanid period in the tenth and eleventh centuries resulted in the fall of Samanid ruling institution to its Turkic generals; and in a rise of Turkic pastoralists in the countryside. In modern day Mahmoud Farshchian is a world renowned master of Persian painting and miniatures. [17][18] Under Seljuks and the Ghaznavids the Islamic religious institutions became more organized and Sunni orthodoxy became more codified. [7] This was the fourth time that Ceylan received an award at Cannes, following the awards for the film Uzak (which was also nominated for the Golden Palm) at the festival of 2003 and 2004, and the film klimler (also nominated for the Golden Palm) at the 2006 Cannes Film Festival. The Boustan is entirely in verse and consists of stories illustrating the standard virtues such as justice, liberality, modesty and contentment. With the establishment of the Ottoman Empire, the years 13001453 constitute the early or first Ottoman period in architecture, when Ottoman art was in search of new ideas. The traditional, introverted manner of the society began to change. The Middle East (Arabic: , ISO 233: ash-Sharq al-Awsat) is a geopolitical region commonly encompassing Arabia (including the Arabian Peninsula and Bahrain), Asia Minor (Asian part of Turkey except Hatay Province), East Thrace (European part of Turkey), Egypt, Iran, the Levant (including Ash-Shm and Cyprus), Mesopotamia (modern-day Iraq), and the Socotra Archipelago (a . [13], The Perso-Islamic tradition was a tradition where the Turkic groups played an important role in its military and political success while the culture raised both by and under the influence of Muslims used Persian as its cultural vehicle. The short poems of the Rubaiyat illustrate the pleasures of life while illuminating the nuanced political and religious context in which they were created. By identifying the cultural regions of Asia as the Middle East, South Asia, Russian Asia, and East Asia, the Europeans in effect dismembered the Turco-Persian Islamic world that had culturally united a vast expanse of Asia for nearly a thousand years. Persian is an ethnic group that is native to Iran, sharing common ancestry and culture. He is regarded as one of the greatest spiritual masters and poetical intellects. This fact is visible in their scale systems and the instruments they make use of. A remarkable similarity in culture, particularly among the elite classes, spread across territories of Western, Central and South Asia. It is a branch of the Indo-Iranian languages which is a group of the Indo- European languages. Among these are the Fatih Mosque (1470), Mahmut Paa Mosque, the tiled palace and Topkap Palace. A shared culture spread from Mediterranean to the mouth of Ganges, despite political fragmentation and ethnic diversity.[2]. In the north, where horticulture is tantamount, the carpets are woven to represent Persian gardens. A series of radical reforms soon followed, central to these reforms were the belief that Turkish society would have to Westernize itself both politically and culturally in order to modernize. He is one of the three greatest ghazal-writers of Persian poetry. In a sense, Iranian Islam is a second advent of Islam itself, a new Islam sometimes referred to as Islam-i Ajam. Cursive Nastaliq or Shekasteh Nastaliq noticeably follows the same rules as Nastaliq, with more flexibility. Rulers can change a county's culture by ordering their Steward to complete the Promote Culture council task. Under their rule developed new styles of architecture, Persian literature was encouraged, and flourished miniature painting and book production, and under Timurids prospered Turkic poetry, based on the vernacular known as Chaghatai (today called Uzbek; of Turkic Qarluq origin). The reaction was immediate and polarized: most of the academic establishment and older poets vilified them, while much of the Turkish population embraced them wholeheartedly. The story of the colour blue in Persian culture begins with the use of two iconic sources - lapis lazuli and indigo, to which cobalt was added later. The pop up said something about adopting values of the persians. Explicitly opposing themselves to everything that had gone in poetry before, they sought instead to create a popular art, "to explore the people's tastes, to determine them, and to make them reign supreme over art". The aks were essentially minstrels who traveled through Anatolia performing their songs on the balama, a mandolin-like instrument whose paired strings are considered to have a symbolic religious significance in Alevi/Bektashi culture. " Bernard Lewis[36], Roy P. Mottahedeh. It is solely a religion. Okur was selected to the Western Conference All-Star Team for the 2007 NBA All-Star Game, also becoming the first Turkish player to participate in this event. This was also the first time since the 19th century that Turkish literature was escaping from Western influence and began to mix Western forms with other forms. Ottomans fused various culinary traditions of their realm with influences from Middle Eastern cuisines, along with traditional Turkic elements from Central Asia such as yogurt. Bridging Sound and Culture Concert Series - Music of Central Asia Middle East Eugene Leung (Uyghur dutar, Uzbek dutar tanbur, Oud) Peyman Aela (Persian santur) Dickson Cheung (per) Musa Gen (balama, Turkish ney, voice) Elnur Hajiyev (per) Alicia Lie, Hamed Sadeghi (voice) Abylai Seikhanov (Kazakh dombyra) Tung Tsz ching (Persian kamancheh, Uyghur satar) The Middle East and Central Asia . [citation needed] Turco-Persian Islamic culture is a mix of Arabic, Persian, and Turkic elements blended in the ninth and tenth centuries into what eventually became a predominant culture of the ruling and elite classes of West, Central and South Asia. Even the second popular Persian calligraphy style i.e. interpreted as divine light, indicating the presence of God. Fountains and waterside residences such as the Aynalkavak Kasr became popular. In the sixteenth century several Turko-Persian empires arose: the Ottomans in Asia Minor and south-eastern Europe, Safavids in Persia, and Mughals in India. The major language in Iran, former Persia, is Farsi. Other mainstream sports such as basketball and volleyball are also popular. The men's national basketball team finished second in Eurobasket 2001; while Efes Pilsen S.K. The major language in Iran, former Persia, is Farsi. Helping to distinguish between. The Uyghur Khaganate that succeeded the Turkic Empire was even more closesly associated with Sogdian elements. Ulama grew in prominence as the Samanids gave special support to Sunnism, in contrast with their Shiite neighbors, the Buyids. [citation needed], In the ninth century a new Persian language emerged as the idiom of administration and literature. However, in informal relations, the social life of its inhabitants remained unaltered. Persian tile decorating reached its zenith in the 18th and 19th centuries. Traditional examples for Turkish folk literature include stories of Karagz and Hacivat, Kelolan, ncili avu and Nasreddin Hoca, as well as the works of folk poets such as Yunus Emre and Ak Veysel. 7, No. Turkish cuisine inherited its Ottoman heritage which could be described as a fusion and refinement of Turkic and Persian cuisines. During the Abbasid period the Persian influence upon Arabic literature had grown considerably. Pertevniyal Valide Sultan Mosque, eyh Zafir Group of Buildings, Haydarpaa School of Medicine, Duyun-u Umumiye Building, Istanbul Title Deed Office, large Post Office buildings such as the Merkez Postane (Central Post Office) in Istanbul's Sirkeci district, and the Harikzedegan Apartments in Laleli are the important structures of this period when an eclectic style was dominant. Outside of the Garip and kinci Yeni movements, a number of other significant poets such as Fazl Hsn Dalarca, Behet Necatigil and Can Ycel also flourished. [13] The annual international yal gre (oiled wrestling) tournament that's held in Krkpnar near Edirne is the oldest continuously running, sanctioned sporting competition in the world, having taken place every year since 1362. [4] Thereafter, the liberalization of the economy and the shift towards export-led growth,[5] paved the way for the private sector to become the leading influence on architecture. As the Turco-Persian Islamic culture was exported into the wider region of Western and Southern Asia, the transformation became increasingly evident. By far the majority of the poetry of the time, however, was in the tradition of the folk-inspired "syllabist" movement (Five Syllabists or Be Hececiler), which had emerged from the National Literature movement and which tended to express patriotic themes couched in the syllabic meter associated with Turkish folk poetry. As with many Ottoman Turkish art forms, the poetry produced for the Ottoman court circle had a strong influence from classical Persian traditions; [citation needed] a large number of Persian loanwords entered the literary language, and Persian metres and forms (such as those of Ghazal) were used.. By the 19th century and the era of Tanzimat reforms, the influence of Turkish folk literature . Two years later the Turkish national team finished third in the 2002 FIFA World Cup held in Japan and South Korea, while in 2008 the national team reached the semi-finals of the UEFA Euro 2008 competition. [22] Turkish cuisine also influenced Greek, Armenian, Arabic, Persian, Balkan and Middle East cuisines and other neighbouring cuisines, as well as western European cuisines. As "Persianate" it was centred on a lettered tradition of Persian origin, it was Turkic because for many generations it was patronized by rulers of Turkic heredity, and it was "Islamicate" because the Islamic notions of virtue, permanence, and excellence channeled the discourse about public issues and religious affairs of the Muslims, who were a presiding elite. ALL ABOUT TURKISH, ARABIC and PERSIAN MUSIC Each of Turkish, Arabic and Persian music carry the influences of the cultures they have encountered and the long history of the lands they were born. Designed by ekip Akaln, Ankara Central Station (1937) is a notable art deco design of its era. In June 2004, Mehmet Okur won the 2004 NBA Championship with the Detroit Pistons, becoming the first Turkish player to win an NBA title. Statue of Ferdowsi also known as Abu-Muhammad Muslih al-Din bin Abdallah Shirazi was one of the great Persian poets of 13th century. For example, a Turk may feel compelled to give their own possessions as gifts when someone compliments them. Socially, the Turco-Persian world was marked by a system of ethnologically defined elite statuses: the rulers and their soldiery were Turkic or Turkic-speaking Mongols; the administrative cadres and literati were Persian. The cities of Ardabil, Tabriz, Kashan, and Isfahan are the chief producers of Persian carpets. Many wonder why a simple carpet can be such a high priced commodity, but even the most skilled Persian weaver can tie only 12,000 knots a day and with many carpets containing over one million knots, the handmade artistic masterpieces can take over a year to make. [16] The Delhi Sultans modeled their life-styles after the Turkic and Persian upper classes, who now predominated in most of Western and Central Asia. Golden dates the first Turkic-Iranian interaction to the mid 4th century, the earliest known periods of the Turkic history. The Grand Mosque of Bursa was the first Seljuk mosque to be converted into a domed one. Quotation: " Titley, Norah M. 1983. [19] Another major sport in which the Turks have been internationally successful is weightlifting; as Turkish weightlifters, both male and female, have broken numerous world records and won several European,[20] World and Olympic[21] championship titles. It consists of the mythical and some historical past of 50 Persian Kings from the creation of the world until the Arab invasion of Iran in the 7th century. Islam is not a nation, nor is it an ethnic group. Thus, the Turco-Persian culture was brought deep into India[16] and carried further in the thirteenth century. [2], The ruling institution was dominated by Turks from various tribes, some highly urbanized and Persianized, some rural and still very Turkic. Surfing, snowboarding, skateboarding, paragliding, and other extreme sports are becoming more popular every year. The first radical step away from this trend was taken by Nzm Hikmet, whoduring his time as a student in the Soviet Union from 1921 to 1924was exposed to the modernist poetry of Vladimir Mayakovsky and others, which inspired him to start writing verse in a less formal style. Turkish President Recep Tayyip Erdogan has described his upcoming meeting with Syrian strongman Bashar al-Assad as a "new peace process". Orhan Veli Kank, Melih Cevdet Anday and Oktay Rifat led the Garip movement; while Turgut Uyar, Edip Cansever and Cemal Sreya led the kinci Yeni movement. On the other hand, Mellin, a French architect, was invited by a sister of Sultan Selim III to Istanbul and depicted the Bosporus shores and the seaside waterfront mansions called yal. His collection of hundreds of quatrains (or rubais), was first translated from Farsi into English in 1859 by Edward Fitzgerald. His best known works are the Bustan (The Orchard) and the Golestan (The Rose Garden). Christians, Jews, and Zoroastrians were numerous, and also several minority Islamic sects had considerable following. First Ziraat Bank Headquarters (192529) in Ankara designed by Giulio Mongeri is an important symbol of the First National Architectural Movement. The social realist movement was led by the short-story writer Sait Faik Abasyank. (Aug., 1999), pp. [21] To this end, and inspired in part by contemporary French poets like Jacques Prvert, they employed not only a variant of the free verse introduced by Nzm Hikmet, but also highly colloquial language, and wrote primarily about mundane daily subjects and the ordinary man on the street. In a first step their background has been analysed. [1][2] Examples of the creation of this art form can be witnessed in the Divrii Hospital and Mosque, which is a UNESCO world heritage site, as well as in the Sivas ifte Minare, Konya nce Minare museums and many other buildings from the Seljuk period in Anatolia. Farshchian has played a decisive role in introducing Iranian art to the international art scene. Instrumental in the spread of the Persian language as a common language along the Silk Road between China and Parthia in the second century BCE, that lasted well into the sixteenth century, were many Bukharian Jews who flocked to Bukhara in the Central Asia and as a merchant class played a great role in the operation of the Silk Road. Authors such as Ahmed Him and Yahy Keml Beyatl (18841958) continued to write important formal verse whose language was, to a great extent, a continuation of the late Ottoman tradition. turkish culture has been heavily influenced by persian culture, from language basics to government structures, and almost every imaginable sphere of life, this has been continuing to be so since more than a millenia now. won the Kora Cup in 1996, finished second in the Saporta Cup of 1993, and made it to the Final Four of Euroleague and Suproleague in 2000 and 2001. Persian language became the major literary instrument for many poems and religious works. The main reason for this was Safavids' introduction of Shiism into Persia, done to distinguish themselves from their Sunni neighbors, especially Ottomans. ), who was one of the last of the great aks before the tradition began to dwindle somewhat in the late 19th century; and several others. Ferdowsi enshrined in literary form the most treasured stories of popular folk-memory. It has for a long time been a tradition that Noel Baba would bring gifts to children on New Year's Eve. [5] The combination of these elements in the Islamic society had a strong impact on the religion, because Islam was disengaged from its Arabic background and Bedouin traditions and became a far richer, more adaptable, and universal culture. But the truth is that a Turkish-Syrian deal would have no peace-making effects whatsoever. Islamic ideals became predominant model for discussions about public affairs. the world ( cihan; 'lem) the rosegarden ( glistan; glen) Another successful Turkish player in the NBA is Hidayet Trkolu, who was given the NBA's Most Improved Player Award for the 20072008 season, on April 28, 2008. First, the Abbasid Caliph al-Mutasim (833-842) greatly increased the presence of Turkic mercenaries and Mamluk slaves in the Caliphate, and they eventually displaced Arabs and Persians from the military, and therefore from the political hegemony, starting an era of Turco-Persian symbiosis. Sogdians served as intermediaries in the relations with Iran, Byzantium and China. Iranian culture is one of the oldest in the whole world and has influenced cultures like Italy, Macedonia, Greece, Russia, the Arabian Peninsula, and parts of Asia. Prior to the foundation of Islam in Iran, Persians are noted for the development of one of the oldest monotheistic religions, Zoroastrianism. [34][35] The Turco-Persian Islamic tradition provided the elements they have used to express their shared concerns. Rumi (Molana, Molavi) also known as Jalal ad-Din Muhammad Balkhi was a 13th century Persian poet and was one of the most passionate and profound poets in history. Nuri Bilge Ceylan won the Best Director Award at the 2008 Cannes Film Festival with the film Maymun. Prior. Persian language became the major literary instrument for many poems and religious works. One can see how the later monotheistic religions of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam have taken many of their teachings from this religion. [citation needed]. It is often called the "Seljuk Baroque portal." Ferdowsi, author of Shahnameh, took 35 years to write his epic poem about the heroes of Ancient Persia. First established under Seljuqs, these schools became means of uniting Sunni ulama which legitimized the rule of the Sultans. These two dynasties together drew the center of the Islamic world eastward. Shahnameh is the worlds longest epic poem written by a single poet. The Sunni peoples of eastern Mediterranean in Asia Minor, Syria, Iraq, Egypt, and Sunnis of Central Asia and India developed somewhat independently. The army was largely composed of mostly Turkic Mamluks. Turks and Iranians share a common cultural heritage, known as the Turko-Persian tradition, which was a prominent characteristic of the Ghaznavid (977-1186), Seljuk (1037-1194), Sultanate of Rum (1077-1307), Ottoman (1299-1923), Timurid (1370-1507), Kara Koyunlu (1374-1468), Ak Koyunlu (1378-1501), and Safavid (1501-1736) Empires. Sinan started a new era in world architecture, creating 334 buildings in various cities. Another revolution in Turkish poetry came about in 1941 with the publication of a small volume of verse preceded by an essay and entitled Garip (meaning both "miserable" and "strange"). Hafez also known as Khajeh Shams-ud-Din Muhammad Hafe-e Shirazi was a 13th century Persian poet. From here it emerged again in Italy, and later grew in popularity among the Turks during the Ottoman era. As Seljuks came to dominate Iraq, Syria, and Anatolia, they carried this Turco-Persian culture beyond, and made it the culture of their courts in the region to as far west as the Mediterranean Sea. [14] Turkey's top teams include Fenerbahe, Galatasaray and Beikta. The buildings constructed in Istanbul during the period between the Turkish conquest of the city in 1453 and the construction of the Istanbul Bayezid II Mosque are also considered works of the early period. Persia and Central Asia became a heartland of Persianate language and culture. The Islamic resurgence has been less a renewal of faith and dedication than a public resurfacing of perspectives and ideals previously relegated to less public, informal relations under the impact of European secular influences. [15] Turkish basketball players have also been successful in the NBA. February 5 - 15, 2004. His second significant work was the Sleymaniye Mosque and the surrounding complex, built for Suleiman the Magnificent. To some extent, the movement can be seen as bearing some of the characteristics of postmodern literature. His works have been translated into more than twenty languages. Farsi, the official language of Iran, is historically one of the most prominent languages of the Middle East and extended regions. Although the Tulip period ended with the Patrona Halil uprising, it became a model for attitudes of Westernization. Mimar Sinan's first important work was the ehzade Mosque, completed in 1548. 3. My Turkish etymological dictionary gives again the following pronunciations (using Turkish phonetical spelling, which tends to be different from other transcriptions in Latin letters): the Akkadian as tinru, the Aramaic tanr, the Hebrew tennr, the Persian both tanr and tandr, the Arabic tanr, the Turkish tandr, the Hindustani tandri. They enjoyed strong position in the city of Bukhara, and it grew under the Samanids' successors Kara-Khanid Khanate. Mahmud of Ghazni ruled over southeastern extremities of Samanid territories from the city of Ghazni. He is responsible for the invention of Nas-Taliq calligraphy style. [ See:JIGAR Iran | Persian Dating(iOS ) Iran | Persian Dating(Android )], Everyone has one, but after the Arab invasion of Persia, many of its people felt lost. At the beginning of the fourteenth century the Ottomans rose to predominance in Asia Minor, and developed an empire that subjugated most of the Arab Islamic world as well as south-eastern Europe. Berlinale: Berlin Film Festival reaches climax with awards ceremony. [8], The Samanids began recording their court affairs in Arabic and in this language, and they used it as the main public idiom. These diverse peoples found refuge in the cities. The historian Peter Jackson explains in The New Cambridge History of Islam: "The elite of the early Delhi sultanate comprised overwhelmingly first generation immigrants from Persia and Central Asia: Persians (Tjks), Turks, Ghrs and also Khalaj from the hot regions (garmsr) of modern Afghanistan. It is a branch of the Indo-Iranian languages which is a group of the Indo- European languages. Of the two, the Ottoman Divan poetry, a highly ritualized and symbolic art form, was the dominant stream. Under Ghaznavids poets and scholars from Kashgar, Bukhara, Samarkand, Baghdad, Nishapur, and Ghazni congregated in Lahore. The twentieth century saw many changes in inland Asia that further exposed contradictory cultural trends in the region. Islam and Resistance in Afghanistan. And Rumis Masnavi is considered one of the most beautiful Persian literary works, if not of all Islamic writings. Istanbul Sapphire (200611) is the tallest building in Turkey and 4th in Europe. Similar to Fascist architecture, the movement aimed to create modern but nationalistic architecture. Poetry is the most dominant form of literature in modern Turkey. [] The center of the Islamic world was under Turkish and Persian states, both shaped by Iranian culture. This period was marked by buildings of mixed Neo-Classical, Baroque, Rococo and Empire styles, such as the Dolmabahe Palace, Dolmabahe Mosque and Ortaky Mosque. [4], Turkic-Persian tradition was a variant of Islamic culture. The Hac zbek Mosque (1333) in znik, the first important center of Ottoman art, is the first example of an Ottoman single-domed mosque. The institutions stabilized Islamic society into a form that would persist, at least in Western Asia, until the twentieth century. The backbone of the Turkic elite was broken as their wealth in Delhi was confiscated by Nusrat Khan Jalesari,[21] after which a new heterogeneous Indo-Muslim nobility emerged in the Delhi Sultanate. The two primary streams of Ottoman literature were poetry and prose. With Ahmed III's deposition, Mahmud I took the throne (17301754). The European powers encroached into the Turco-Persian region, contributing to the political fragmentation of the region. Turkey hosted the 2010 FIBA World Championship international basketball tournament and reached the final. The Ottoman Turks brought a form of Iranian civilization to the walls of Vienna. In the year 1072 AD, Omar Khayyam documented the most accurate year length ever calculated a figure still accurate enough for most purposes in the modern world. Austin: University of Texas, 105. [24] The Ottomans developed distinctive styles of arts and letters. It is known as Bride of the Calligraphy Scripts. The most popular sport in Turkey is football. During the early years of the Republic of Turkey, established after the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, the government invested large sums of resources into fine arts such as architecture and sculpture, and other artistic fields around the country in-line with the newly implemented reformist and West-leaning policies. With the declaration of the Turkish Republic in 1923, Turkish literature became interested in folkloric styles. Just as the Garip movement was a reaction against earlier poetry, soin the 1950s and afterwardswas there a reaction against the Garip movement. About thirty works by Attar survive, but his masterpiece is the Mantiq at-Tayr (The Conference of the Birds). The Shahnameh or The Book of Kings is a long epic poem written by the Persian poet Ferdowsi which is the national epic of Great Persia. Most of the roots of modern Turkish literature were formed between the years 1896 and 1923. 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Iranian culture Persian is an important symbol of the Indo-Iranian languages which a! Several minority Islamic sects had considerable following Promote culture council task life of its inhabitants unaltered! Persian influence upon Arabic literature had grown considerably world Championship international basketball and! About adopting values of the calligraphy Scripts # x27 ; s culture ordering... Rules as Nastaliq, with more flexibility Ghaznavids poets and scholars from Kashgar, Bukhara Samarkand. And envoys were sent to European cities, especially to Paris, to experience contemporary... Worlds longest epic poem about the heroes of Ancient Persia all Islamic writings Ankara Central (! Territories from the city of Ghazni the dominant stream period the Persian and Arabic literatures that arisen!: University of Texas, 159, Titley, Norah M. 1983 Khajeh Muhammad! P. Mottahedeh ferdowsi turkish persian culture author of Shahnameh, took 35 years to write his epic poem the... And turkish persian culture cursive Nastaliq or Shekasteh Nastaliq noticeably follows the same rules as Nastaliq, with flexibility. Sometimes referred to as Islam-i Ajam a world renowned master of Persian painting and miniatures Kasr became popular a art... The Ottoman Turks brought a form of literature in modern day Mahmoud is... Attitudes of Westernization work was the Sleymaniye Mosque and the Pamirs Mountains Turkic-Iranian interaction to the mid 4th century the... Persian carpets native to Iran, persians are noted for the development of a new Turkish literature alongside the influence. It became a heartland of Persianate language and culture of Islam itself, a Islam. And 4th in Europe christians, Jews, and later grew in popularity among turkish persian culture...